Euro currency and bonds - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 9 Words: 2721 Downloads: 4 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Finance Essay Type Analytical essay Did you like this example? Introduction..5 Euro Currency..5 Euro Currency Market Institutional Settings First Principle Deposit Rates Euro Deposit Risk Euro Bonds Market Dimension and Currency Composition Dimensions Currency Composition Regulatory and Institutional Features Primary Market Competitive Market Grey Market Pricing of Euro Bonds Problems and Risk Arbitrage Opportunity Global Bond Firms with and without Currency Hedging References Introduction Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Euro currency and bonds" essay for you Create order Financial crisis is one of the most if not the most disruptive shock to an economy. It results into a steep and rapid devaluation in asset prices and failures of financial institutions. Financial crises can be caused by both internal (political instability) and external shocks (increase in the price of oil) to the economy. It leads to a negative impact on different parts of the financial system and the economy. To a great extent, they are hard to predict and tackle due to their complexity especially when it comes to liquidity or insolvency issues. Financial crises have instigated and/or fuelled many of the worst recessions around the world. In the short-term, monetary and fiscal policies often are insufficient for ending these crises. The financial crisis of 2007-2009 has brought into light the risk of disproportionately relying on solely one currency (USD) for international trade and investment. So investment in offshore market can prevent the crisis because of its huge trading volu me representing the largest asset class in the world leading to high liquidity. For example, investment in offshore market allows a business in the United Kingdom to trade or invest in the United States and pay euro dollars, even though its income is in Euros. Hence without the help of offshore market, the US dollar would not have attained the superior position that it takes over today in international trade and investment. Euro Currency A euro currency is a time-deposit of money in an International Bank located in a country different from the country that issued the currency. For e.g. Euro yen or the deposits of Japanese Yen located in a bank outside Japan. As the Yen deposited outside the Japan is called Euro Yen. The banks accepting the Euro currency deposits are called Euro banks. The euro currency market is an external banking system that works by coordinating to the Domestic Banking System of a country that issued the currency. Both, Euro and Domestic Banking System seek deposits and give loan to the customers from the deposited funds in their bank. Euro dollar deposits for e.g., are not subject to arbitrage reserve requirements or deposit insurance, hence marking their cost of operations less. Because of the reduced cost structure the euro currency market has grown significantly in recent years. The Euro currency market operates at the inter-bank and/or wholesale level. Euro banks with surplus funds and no retail customers will lend funds to euro banks that have borrowers but need loanable funds. The rate charged by banks with excess funds is referred to as the interbank offered rates. In simple words Euro currency market can be defined as the short term borrowing or lending of a currency away from the Country which has originally issued that currency. So far the most important euro currency is Euro Dollar which is accounted in almost 60-65% of all the Euro Currency operations. Eurocurrency Market The market where Euro currency is often borrowed from seller and lends to buyer is Eurocurrency Market. Euro Currency Market Size The Euro currency market has experienced a rapid growth since 1960s. In 1963 the overall total value of Euro banks assets was estimated to be $12.4 billion. But by the end of December 1985 the Eurocurrency market was approximately calculated by Morgan Guaranty bank to have a gross size of $ 1,668 Billion, out of which 75% were Eurodollars. In 2003 the Eurodollar market was around $15,929 billion, which was maintaining at an average growth of 19.6% per annum over a period of 4 decades. The Eurodollar market has since then been the back bone of global finance source. In year 1997, almost 90% of all loans at international level were carried out on a similar basis. Difference between net and gross size of Eurocurrency market makes accurate measurement of the actual size of the Eurocurrency market tricky. The growth of Eurocurrency market is equally difficult to estimate because the market is not accountable to any government institution . Both non-Euro bank and inter-bank deposits have t he gross measure, while an interbank deposit excludes the net measure. The overall evaluation gives an idea about the gross activity in the Euromarkets whereas the net measure gives a better clue related to the ability of generating credit of the Euro banking system. Reasons for the Development and Growth of the Eurocurrency Market Euro currency market provides higher interest rates on short-term deposits in established offshore market. Multi-national corporations with major focus on international trade finds it very viable to keep balances abroad for short periods in the currency in which they do most of their transactions. Domestic credit restraints can be overcome by International firms just by borrowing within the Eurocurrency market. Institutional Settings Due to explicit corporate situation, the offshore market gains some unique features. Preponderantly the market is liable to obvious drivers because it is not attached from its domestic correspondent. These are realistic just in case of market division of government bonds. This driver basically takes into account appreciation and therefore explains why the offshore and onshore yield curves deviate from each other. Credit Creation in Eurocurrency Market Multiplier effect The multiplier factor results within the Eurodollar market which comes from the observation of partial preserve banking. For every $1000 deposit, if a bank holds 10% of the initial amount, it can lend $900 in the market of the initial deposit. This $900 deposit will generate a $90 reserve in the next bank and an $810 loan. This generates another $810 deposit, an $81 reserve in the next bank and a $729 loan. The sum of $1000 + $900 +810 + $729 + eventually reaches $10,000, or $1000 divided by the percentage reserve. The process of lending and re-depositing could continue until Euromarkets deposits reaches: D = R/r R= initial injection of funds into the Euromarkets, r = fraction of reserves held against deposits, 1/r = deposit-reserve multiplier. Competitive Response to Offshore Markets Knowledge Advantage The offshore funds can draw on the domestic funds knowledge of personal contact and credit investigation for use in that offshore market. Regulation Advantage The Offshore market may not be subject to the same regulations as domestic market. Growth Growth prospects in a home nation may be limited by a market largely saturated with services offered by domestic funds. Risk Reduction Greater stability of earning is possible with offshore investment. Offsetting business and monetary policy cycles across nations reduces the domestic specific risk in that offshore market. Tax benefit Advantage of less tax can be enjoyed in offshore market. Higher Returns Depending on the interest rate, offshore market may result in higher returns as compared to onshore market. Flexibility With investing in offshore market comes the freedom to choose. An investor in Bangladesh will get more trading or investment opportunities in Europe than in its domestic market. Uncertainty in Exchange Rate Exchange rates vary due to numerous factors. Some may be strictly political events but financial activities can also affect the exchange rates. Operation and Effects of Eurocurrency Markets Operation In general Euro banks do not produce capital, but they are fundamentally financial mediators which brings together borrowers and lenders. Euro bank is related to commercial bank deposits which are done in the offshore market. E.g. A deposit denominated in the British Pounds in an American Commercial Bank (or even in an American branch of a British bank) is termed as Eurodollar. Risk of Eurocurrency deposits The Eurocurrency deposits within the offshore market can create great fluctuations in exchange and other financial markets. The Eurocurrency market reduces the efficiency of domestic stabilization efforts of national governments. Eurocurrency deposits in any markets are mostly not controlled. It may result in a severe global recession that could turn some of the systems banks insolvent. This probably would lead internationally to the kind of bank chaos that affected capitalist nations during the 19th century. Euro Bonds Any corporate or government which issues bonds in a currency not native to their home currency is called Euro Bonds. In other words, Euro bonds are those bonds which are in a different currency from the Country or the Market issuing them. For e.g. An Indian Company issuing Euro pound bonds denominated in the UK currency in Singapore. The Indian Company in this example can issue pounds denominating Euro bonds in any country other than the U.K. Euro bonds have always been attractive to the investors because it gives investor flexibility to choose the currency in which they want to denominate their euro bonds. Euro bond is desirable tool for financing facilities as it gives issuer pliability to select the currency in which to offer their bonds according to countrys systematic obligations. Also Euro bonds owner do not need to be registered with the issuer of the bonds. Eurobond Markets Eurobond markets are long-term debt securities sold outside the borrowers country to raise long-term capital in a currency other than the currency of the nation where the bonds are sold. Euro Bonds Market Dimension and Currency Composition Eurobonds dominates over 80 percent of the international bond market. The euro bond market has developed drastically after 2001. The major cause of fall of Dollar denominated Euro bonds was the growth of the Euro as an international trade and investment currency which has made the market more attractive for investor as well as issuer for euro denominated bonds. The impressive boost of the European bond market can be explained by an enhanced and more liquid market. Another reason was the greater range of novel products, such as index-linked bonds, real-time bond indices; fixed income exchange traded funds, credit derivatives and structured products. Companies issuing dollar-denominated Eurobonds pay a slightly lower interest rate than they would pay in the U.S Prior to the EMU set up about 75% of Eurobonds was in U.S. dollars but todays market is conquered by the Euro denominated bonds. The latter now tops with more than 45% of the entire Euro Bonds market (and it is still growing) wh ile the former has declined to only 36%. Institutional Feature of Euro Bonds Euro bonds mainly consist of Bearer bonds where the possessor is also the proprietor. No data is kept whatsoever by the issuer stating the actual holder of the bonds. On the other hand, registered bonds clearly specify the holders name which appears on the front of the bond. The issuer also keeps track of owner and allocates the bond serial number on holders name. The name of each new holder of the registered bond is allocated to the serial number of the bond. The Euro bond market consists of 80% of the international bond market comprising mainly large Financial Institutions. The Euro bonds are not regulated by any Government authority or private sector. Primary Market Competitive Market Euro bonds are highly competitive compared to any other International Bonds market. The main factor responsible for this feature of Euro bond is the easy entry into the underwriting business. The Concentration ratios of Euro Bonds represents that it has reached the numerous important players in the underwriting business market. In the case of Euro bonds, underwriter shares big risk. In some cases it is difficult for the underwriter to even cover its cost, let alone profit making. Gray market Issuer and buyer get the information through gray market even before issuing of the bond in the market. For instance when an issued bonds is priced at 1000 pounds, in the gray market price can be estimated at 980 pounds, financier and underwriter syndicate can deduce that the bond is over-priced. In Gray market interest rates are higher and small bonds are issued. The opposite can take place if bonds perform above par in gray market. Risk and problems associated with Eurobonds Moral Hazard Joint issuance of debt through Eurobonds brings in a major moral hazard. If European Union accepts the Euro Bonds, it would be allowing unscrupulous activities and providing access to unauthorized agencies. No Political Backing Eurobonds would be insufficient for the good executing of the fiscal unions. Monetary transfers would be required from the countries with plenty of capital to underdeveloped countries. Eurobonds alone are not universal remedy and there is no political eagerness on the part of body of voters for the kind of drastic federalism that would be required. Anonymous Bond Holder Most of the Eurobonds are bearer bonds. The issuer does not keep any record of the firm to which bond is issued.. Eurobonds are attractive to investors who want to remain anonymous (to avoid taxes or for other reasons). Credit Risk Euro bonds are highly risky because of credit risk. Some assets may result in higher yield but some may not. The investor should have good knowledge of the market and consider doing research about the Euro bonds it is going to invest in. Pricing of Euro bonds The issuer of Eurobonds calculate price with the help of EURIBOR (Euro Interbank Offered Rate), LIBOR (London Interbank Offered Rate) and the United States Treasury Bonds market. Usually brokers and banks help the financier to invest in the Euro bonds. Investor should have good knowledge of market and should consider the expertise and credit quality of the issuer. Arbitrage Opportunity In an incorporated capital market the evaluation of bonds are done under certain terms and conditions. It fluctuates the price of a bond equally in both Eurobond and domestic market. Arbitrage between the offshore and onshore bond markets guides the markets toward integration. As Euro bonds are bearer bonds and the issuer do not have track of the buyer which makes investment an arbitrage opportunity. Also the investor is anonymous so there is not tax. No data is kept whatsoever by the issuer stating the actual holder of the bonds. The holder of the physical bonds is the owner of the Eurobonds. References Investing in Bonds Europe: Overview Eurobonds . 2014. Investing in Bonds Europe: Overview Eurobonds . [ONLINE] Available at: https://investinginbonds.eu/pages/learnaboutbonds.aspx?id=6368. [Accessed 12th December 2013]. . 2014. . [ONLINE] Available at: https://www2.bc.edu/~murphyro/EC204/Supps/MBSuppCh19.pdf. [Accessed 17 February 2014]. . 2014. . [ONLINE] Available at: https://www.bis.org/publ/bppdf/bispap44d.pdf. [Accessed 17 February 2014]. Delpla, Jacques and Jakob von Weizscker (2010), The Blue Bond Proposal, Bruegel Policy Brief, Bruegel, Brussels, May (https://www.bruegel.org/download/parent/403-the-blue-bond-proposal/file/885-the-blue-bond-proposal-english/). Offshore Company (2013) Offshore Company [online] Available From https://www.offshorecompany.co.uk/investments/benefits.htm [Accessed on 9th November 2013] Chicago Booth (2013) Chicago Booth [online] Available From https://www.chicagobooth.edu/~/media/44CEE6C8A25B4FF2A48925163DAA2F85.pdf [Accessed on 10th December 2013] Schmitz, Martin (2011), Financial Reforms and Capital Flows to Emerging Europe, Empirica 38(4), 579-605. Borio, Claudio and PitiDisyatat (2011), Global Imbalances and the Financial Crisis: Link or No Link?, BIS Working Paper No. 346. Econstor. (2011). Euro Currency. Available: Econstor (2013) Econstor [online] Available From https://www.econstor.eu/dspace/bitstream/10419/44784/1/308627644.pdf [Accessed on 30th , September 2013]. Last accessed 15th Jan 2014. Bruno, Valentina and Hyun Song Shin (2012), Capital Flows, Cross-Border Banking and Global Liquidity, mimeo, Princeton University. International Monetary Fund, International Capital Markets (Washington, D.C.: IMF, 2002) IMF, Modern Banking and OTC Derivatives Markets Washington, D.C.: IMF, 2000) Harold G. Vatter and John F. Walker (editors): History of the U.S. Economy since World War II; Sharpe, 1996. Balbach, A and D Resler (1980): Eurodollars and the US money supply, Federal Reserve Bank of St Louis, Review, JuneJuly, pp 212. The Drivers of Cross Market Arbitrage Opportunities: Theory and Evidence for the European Bond Market Munich Personal RePEc Archive. 2014. The Drivers of Cross Market Arbitrage Opportunities: Theory and Evidence for the European Bond Market Munich Personal RePEc Archive. [ONLINE] Available at: https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/23381/. [Accessed 1st January 2014]. . 2014. . [ONLINE] Available at: https://www.bis.org/publ/econ1.pdf. [Accessed 17th January 2014]. Investing in Bonds Europe: Overview Eurobonds . 2014. Investing in Bonds Europe: Overview Eurobonds . [ONLINE] Available at: https://investinginbonds.eu/pages/learnaboutbonds.aspx?id=6368. [Accessed 17 February 2014]. 2014. . [ONLINE] Available at: https://www.stanford.edu/class/msande247s/2009/1103%202009%20posting/2009chap10%20SLIDES%20NCCU.pdf. [Accessed 25th December 2013]. 1 | Page

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Law of Negligent Misstatement Samples †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Law of Negligent Misstatement. Answer: Introduction: The present case is based on the chapter of negligence that is a part of the Tort law. The term negligence means a careless action that becomes harmful to others. The primary objective of the negligence is that a person should act diligently to avoid any accident where the outcome shall be detrimental in nature. It is the duty of a prudent man to act diligently and cautiously to avoid any harmful effect regarding any specific act. If there is a laxity regarding the same cropped up, the person can be held liable under the law of negligence. Negligence: There are certain essential elements present for committing a valid negligence. The first essentials are Duty of care. The principle of duty of care is, for the first time established in a historic case of Donoghue v Stevenson [1932], where the court was pleased to held the manufacturer of the Ginger bottle liable, where the decomposed body of a snail had found, for non-performance of duty of care. Thenegligence law of Australia was established with the case law of Grant v Australian Knitting Mills (1936). The second essential found when there is any breach regarding the duty occurred. The case of Donoghue v Stevenson is a historic case in the negligence arena and the chapter of negligence has been reviewed and renewed by this case. The general rule is that when a person speaks anything, he is bound by law to perform the duty and if he has failed to do so, the necessary provisions of law will apply on them. The third essentials of the negligence are the harmful effect of such breach of duty by the person. It is a fact that every person has certain rights to secure their own interest. If that interest is affected by the acts of others, the victim has a right to sue the wrongdoer in the competent court of justice. Misstatement: The present case is based on the principle of negligence. Apart from the essentials of the negligence, the case is attracted the provisions of the misstatement. It has been stated earlier that negligence is a part of thelaw of Tort. By Tort, it is meant that any act that is malice in nature and caused certain damages and can be prosecuted before the civil court of law. The term negligent misstatement means a wrong statement that is delivered by the person who stated certain facts or suggested certain things in good faith but the nature of the statement is careless. The wrongdoer in this case usually holds certain knowledge on a specific subject that the advice taker does not hold. It is obvious that if the statement made by the person, become wrong, it will impose serious burden on the advice taker and may injure him economically or physically. In this case, the elements of the contract will be applicable and the provision of the duty to take reasonable care will impose. In case if misstatement, the person to whom the statement are to be made, relied on the statement and take it as experts opinion. Therefore, if such statement indicates towards the wrong path, it will cause serious injury to the advice taker. In Shaddock Associates Pty Ltd v Parramatta City Council [1981] HCA 59, it was held that the advice of the solicitor on behalf of the associates caused losses to the council employees and therefore, the Associates held liable for the act of misstatement. Application: From the facts of the case, it is clear that John and Natalie are spouse to each other and wanted to start a motel business. They had certain conversations with Mrs Wentworth and they had taken the advices as experts opinion. Mrs Wentworth told the couple that she had certain motels in her hand that can be suitable for the start up business and showed them the same. The motel costs $100,000 and certain facts are stated to them regarding the non-profitability of the hotel. However, at the time of the payment, Mrs Wentworth told them that the motel would run smoothly at the time of the winter vacation and now they are investing into a gold mine. Believing the facts, the couple bought the motel at a lump sum amount but could not make profit within six months. Advice: Therefore, it is advices that both John and Natalie can claim damage from Mrs. Wentworth under the law of negligence. The provision regarding the case is misstatement by Mrs. Wentworth. It is a fact that by the misstatement of Wentworth, both the parties had suffered monetary loss. Mrs. Wentworth was an expert in the motel industry and the couple was novice. They invested their money on the words of Mrs. Wentworth. Therefore, the acts of Mrs. Wentworth attract the provision of misstatement and John and Natalie can claim damage from her.